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Gauss’s theorem states that total electric flux through a closed surface equals 1/ε₀ times net charge enclosed. It helps compute fields for symmetric charge distribution
Drift velocity is average velocity of electrons under electric field. Mobility is drift velocity per unit electric field. Both explain Ohm’s law microscopically.
dB = (μ₀/4π) Idl sinθ / r². Direction given by right-hand rule. Used for circular loop and straight conductor magnetic field calculation.
Lenz’s law states induced current opposes change in magnetic flux causing it. It follows conservation of energy and determines direction of induced EMF.
Light must travel from denser to rarer medium with angle of incidence greater than critical angle. Critical angle = sin⁻¹(n₂/n₁). Used in fiber optics.
Fringe width β = λD/d, where λ is wavelength, D is slit-to-screen distance, d is slit separation. Fringes are equally spaced for monochromatic light.
hν = φ₀ + K_max. Stopping potential V₀ = (hν - φ₀)/e. It is the retarding potential that stops most energetic photoelectrons.
Electrons revolve in fixed orbits without radiating energy. Angular momentum = nh/2π. Energy emitted when electron jumps from higher to lower orbit.
Intrinsic: pure semiconductor with equal electrons and holes. Extrinsic: doped with impurities (n-type with pentavalent; p-type with trivalent atoms).
Connect a low resistance shunt in parallel with galvanometer. Shunt diverts most current, allowing measurement of higher currents without damaging the coil.
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Gauss’s theorem states that total electric flux through a closed surface equals 1/ε₀ times net charge enclosed. It helps compute fields for symmetric charge distribution
Drift velocity is average velocity of electrons under electric field. Mobility is drift velocity per unit electric field. Both explain Ohm’s law microscopically.
dB = (μ₀/4π) Idl sinθ / r². Direction given by right-hand rule. Used for circular loop and straight conductor magnetic field calculation.
Lenz’s law states induced current opposes change in magnetic flux causing it. It follows conservation of energy and determines direction of induced EMF.
Light must travel from denser to rarer medium with angle of incidence greater than critical angle. Critical angle = sin⁻¹(n₂/n₁). Used in fiber optics.
Fringe width β = λD/d, where λ is wavelength, D is slit-to-screen distance, d is slit separation. Fringes are equally spaced for monochromatic light.
hν = φ₀ + K_max. Stopping potential V₀ = (hν - φ₀)/e. It is the retarding potential that stops most energetic photoelectrons.
Electrons revolve in fixed orbits without radiating energy. Angular momentum = nh/2π. Energy emitted when electron jumps from higher to lower orbit.
Intrinsic: pure semiconductor with equal electrons and holes. Extrinsic: doped with impurities (n-type with pentavalent; p-type with trivalent atoms).
Connect a low resistance shunt in parallel with galvanometer. Shunt diverts most current, allowing measurement of higher currents without damaging the coil.
