Modern ABC of Practical Chemistry Class 11 by S. Kiran Kavya (Modern Publishers) is a complete laboratory manual for CBSE and state board students. It covers basic laboratory techniques, determination of melting point and boiling point, crystallisation for substance purification, pH experiments using universal indicator, chemical equilibrium shifts, and quantitative estimation (volumetric analysis) including molarity and strength determination. The book also provides systematic inorganic qualitative analysis for salt detection, organic compound tests for nitrogen/sulphur/chlorine, and investigatory projects like water hardness testing and soap foaming capacity. Ideal for practical exams and competitive exam preparation.
Master Class 11 Practical Chemistry with Modern ABC – The Complete Laboratory Companion
The Modern ABC of Practical Chemistry Class 11, authored by S. Kiran Kavya and published by Modern Publishers, is a meticulously crafted laboratory manual designed to bridge the gap between theoretical chemistry concepts and hands-on experimental skills. Aligned with the latest CBSE and other board syllabi, this book serves as an indispensable resource for students aiming to excel in their practical examinations and develop a robust foundation for competitive exams like JEE and NEET.
This volume goes beyond a simple list of experiments; it is a comprehensive guide to the quantitative estimation and qualitative analysis that form the core of Class 11 practical work. The book begins by establishing a strong safety and procedural foundation with a dedicated section on First Aid in the Laboratory and an introduction to "The Chemist and His Tools". Students will master basic laboratory techniques through step-by-step instructions on cutting glass tubes, bending them, drawing jets, and boring corks—essential psychomotor skills for any budding chemist.
A significant portion of the book is dedicated to the characterisation and purification of chemical substances. Learners will gain hands-on experience in determining the melting point and boiling point of organic compounds and performing crystallisation to purify impure samples of copper sulphate (blue vitriol), potash alum, and benzoic acid. These experiments teach the principle of obtaining pure compounds from crude mixtures.
The manual provides exhaustive coverage of experiments based on pH, a critical topic in physical chemistry. From determining the pH of fruit juices and vegetable juices using pH paper and universal indicator to comparing the pH of strong versus weak acids, students will explore the entire spectrum of acidity and alkalinity. Key experiments include studying the pH change in titration (e.g., 0.1 M HCl with 0.1 M NaOH) and the common ion effect by observing pH changes in acetic acid upon adding sodium acetate or in ammonium hydroxide upon adding ammonium chloride.
In the unit on chemical equilibrium, students investigate the Le Chatelier principle by studying shifts in equilibrium between ferric and thiocyanate ions and between hexaaquacobalt(II) and chloride ions. The quantitative estimation (volumetric analysis) section is particularly robust, guiding learners through preparing standard solutions (M/10 oxalic acid, M/10 sodium carbonate) and determining the molarity and strength of sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid solutions. A unique inclusion is the volumetric determination of the percentage purity of a given sodium carbonate sample.
The inorganic qualitative analysis section provides a systematic scheme for detecting one anion and one cation in a given salt, covering a wide range of ions including Pb²⁺, Cu²⁺, Fe³⁺, Ni²⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, NH₄⁺, CO₃²⁻, NO₃⁻, Cl⁻, and more. Furthermore, the book covers the detection of nitrogen, sulphur, and chlorine in organic compounds via Lassaigne’s test.
A standout feature is the inclusion of eight investigatory projects that encourage scientific enquiry. Projects include checking bacterial contamination in drinking water by testing sulphide ions, testing water hardness and the presence of iron/fluoride/chloride, studying the foaming capacity of soaps with and without sodium carbonate, analysing the acidity of tea leaves and fruit juices, comparing the rate of evaporation of different liquids, and studying the effect of acids and bases on the tensile strength of fibres like cotton, wool, silk, and nylon.
With detailed appendices, clear diagrams, and viva-voce questions, Modern ABC of Practical Chemistry Class 11 is the definitive guide for scoring top marks and building genuine laboratory competence.
Does this book cover the preparation of standard solutions for titration?
A1
Yes. It details preparing 250 mL of M/10 oxalic acid and M/10 sodium carbonate solutions for accurate volumetric analysis.
Q2
Are investigatory projects included as per CBSE guidelines?
A2
Yes. It contains eight projects, including water purification, foaming capacity of soaps, and tensile strength of fibres.
Q3
Does it cover the detection of both anions and cations in a salt?
A3
Yes. Systematic qualitative analysis for cations like Pb²⁺, Cu²⁺, Fe³⁺ and anions like CO₃²⁻, NO₃⁻, Cl⁻ is included.
Q4
Are melting and boiling point determinations explained?
A4
Yes. Separate experiments show step-by-step determination of melting point of solids and boiling point of liquids.
Q5
Does it include experiments on chemical equilibrium shift?
A5
Yes. It demonstrates shifts in ferric-thiocyanate equilibrium and cobalt-chloride equilibrium by changing ion concentrations.
Q6
Does the book cover purification of impure benzoic acid?
A6
Yes. Experiment 4.3 details crystallisation to purify an impure sample of benzoic acid.
Q7
How does it teach glassware handling?
A7
Basic techniques include cutting, bending glass tubes, drawing jets, preparing capillary tubes, and boring corks.
Q8
Does it help in determining the purity of washing soda?
A8
Yes. Experiment 7.5 teaches volumetric determination of percentage purity of a given sodium carbonate sample.
Q9
Is the effect of surface area on evaporation covered?
A9
Yes. Project 6 includes an experiment to study the effect of surface area on the rate of evaporation of a liquid.
Q10
Does the book cover organic compound detection for nitrogen?
A10
Yes. Chapter 9 specifically covers detection of nitrogen, sulphur, and chlorine in organic compounds via Lassaigne’s test.
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First Aid in Laboratory
1. The Chemist and His Tools
2. Basic Laboratory Techniques
Experiment 2.1: To cut a glass tube and round off its edges.
Experiment 2.2: To bend a glass tube.
Experiment 2.3: To draw a jet from a glass tube and prepare a capillary tube.
Experiment 2.4: To bore a cork and fit a glass tube into it.
3. Determination of Melting Point and Boiling Point
Experiment 3.1: To determine the melting point of the given solid substance.
Experiment 3.2: To determine the boiling point of the given liquid.
4. Characterisation and Purification of Chemical Substances
Experiment 4.1: To prepare crystals of pure copper sulphate (CaSO₄.5H₂O) from a given impure sample of blue vitriol.
Experiment 4.2: To prepare crystals of potash alum (K₂SO₄Al₂(SO)₃, 24H₂O) from a commercial sample.
Experiment 4.3: To purify an impure sample of benzoic acid by the process of crystallisation.
5. Experiments based on pH
Experiment 5.1: Determine the pH value of some vegetable juices and fruit juices using (i) pH paper (ii) universal indicator solution.
Experiment 5.2: Determine the pH values of hydrochloric acid solutions of different concentrations using (i) pH paper (ii) and universal indicator solution.
Experiment 5.3: Determine the pH values of sodium hydroxide solutions of different concentrations using (i) pH paper (ii) and universal indicator solution.
Experiment 5.4: Determine the pH values of given salt solutions using (1) pH paper and (ii) universal indicator solution.
Experiment 5.5: Determine and compare the pH values of hydrochloric acid and acetic acid solutions having the same concentration.
Experiment 5.6: To study the change in pH in the titration of 0.1 M HCl with 0.1 M NaOH solution with the help of universal indicator solution.
Experiment 5.7: To determine the change in pH value of given acetic acid on the addition of sodium acetate solution.
Experiment 5.8: Determine the change in pH value of a given ammonium hydroxide (NH₄OH) solution on addition of ammonium chloride solution.
6. Chemical Equilibrium
Experiment 6.1: To study the shift in equilibrium between ferric ions and thiocyanate ions by increasing/decreasing the concentration of either ion.
Experiment 6.2: To study the shift in equilibrium between Co(H₂O) by changing the concentration of either of the ions. and chloride ions
7. Quantitative Estimation (Volumetric Analysis)
Experiment 7.1: To prepare 250 mL of M/10 solution of oxalic acid from crystalline oxalic acid.
Experiment 7.2: Prepare 250 mL of M/10 sodium carbonate solution.
Experiment 7.3: Determine the molarity and strength of the given sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) solution. You are provided with M/20 oxalic acid solution.
Experiment 7.4: Determine molarity and strength of the given solution of hydrochloric acid. You are provided with an M/20 sodium carbonate solution.
Experiment 7.5: Determine volumetrically the percentage purity of a given sample of sodium carbonate (washing soda), 7.0 g of which are dissolved per litre. Ask for your requirement.
8. Inorganic Qualitative Analysis
9. Detection of Nitrogen, Sulphur, and Chlorine in Organic Compounds
- Investigatory Projects
Project 1: Checking of bacterial contamination in drinking water.
Experiment 1.1: To check the bacterial contamination in drinking water by testing sulphide ions.
Project 2: Study of methods of purification of water.
Project 3: Testing the hardness and presence of iron, fluoride, and chloride in drinking water
Experiment 3.1: To determine the hardness of water in a given water sample.
Experiment 3.2: To test the presence of iron, chloride, fluoride, etc., depending upon the regional variation in drinking water and the study of causes of the presence of these ions above the permissible limit (if any)
Project 4: To Study the Foaming Capacity of Soaps.
Experiment 4.1: Compare the foaming capacities of different samples of soaps.
Experiment 4.2: Study the effect of the addition of sodium carbonate (washing soda) on the foaming capacity of a soap.
Project 5: Study of acidity of different samples of tea leaves.
Experiment 5.1: To study the acidity of different samples of the tea leaves.
Project 6: To study the rate of evaporation of different liquids.
Experiment 6.1: To compare the rates of evaporation of different liquids (say water, ethyl alcohol, acetone and benzene).
Experiment 6.2: To study the effect of temperature on the rate of evaporation of a liquid.
Experiment 6.3: To study the effect of surface area on the rate of evaporation of a liquid.
Experiment 6.4: To study the effect of air current on the rate of evaporation.
Project 7: Study of the effect of acids and bases on the tensile strength of fibres.
Experiment 7.1: To compare the tensile strength of cotton, wool, silk and nylon fibres.
Experiment 7.2: To study the effect of acids and alkalis on the tensile strength of cotton, wool, silk and nylon fibres.
Project 8: Study of acidity of fruit and vegetable juices.
Experiment 8.1: To study the acidity of fruit and vegetable juices.
Appendices
PRACTICAL SYLLABUS
Microchemical methods are available for several of the practical experiments; wherever possible, such techniques should be used:
A. Basic Laboratory Techniques
1. Cutting glass tube and glass rod
2. Bending a glass tube
3. Drawing out a glass jet
4. Boring a cork
B. Characterization and Purification of Chemical Substances
1. Determination of the melting point of an organic compound.
2. Determination of boiling point of an organic compound.
3. Crystallization of an impure sample of any one of the following: alum, copper sulfate, or benzoic acid.
C. Experiments based on pH
1. Any one of the following experiments:
- Determination of pH of some solutions obtained from fruit juices and solutions of known and varied concentrations of acids, bases, and salts using pH paper or universal indicator.
- Comparing the pH of solutions of strong and weak acids of the same concentration.
- Study the pH change in the titration of a strong base using a universal indicator.
2. Study the pH change by common ion in the case of weak acids and weak bases.
D. Chemical Equilibrium
- One of the following experiments:
(a) Study the shift in equilibrium between ferric ions by increasing/decreasing the concentration of either of the ions.
(b) Study the shift in equilibrium between [Co(H₂O)₆]²⁺ and chloride ions by changing the concentration of the ions.
E. Quantitative Estimation
(i) Using a mechanical balance/electronic balance.
(ii) Preparation of standard solution of oxalic acid.
(iii) Determination of the strength of a given solution of sodium hydroxide by titrating it against a standard solution of oxalic acid.
(iv) Preparation of standard solution of sodium carbonate.
(v) Determination of strength of a given solution of hydrochloric acid by titrating it against standard
F. Qualitative Analysis
(a) Determination of one anion and one cation in a given salt
(b) Detection of nitrogen, sulfur, and chlorine in organic compounds.
(c) Projects
Scientific investigations involving laboratory testing and collecting information from other sources.
PROJECTS
A Few Suggested Projects.
- Checking the bacterial contamination in drinking water by testing sulphide ion.
- Study of the methods of purification of water.
- Testing the hardness, presence of iron, fluoride, chloride, etc., depending upon the regional variation in drinking water and study of causes of presence of these ions above the permissible limit (if any).
- Investigation of the foaming capacity of different washing soaps and the effect of the addition of sodium carbonate on it.
- Study the acidity of different samples of tea leaves.
- Determination of the rate of evaporation of different liquids.
- Study the effect of acids and bases on the tensile strength of fibers.
- Study of acidity of fruit and vegetable juices.
Note: Any other investigatory project, which involves about 10 periods of work, can be chosen with the approval of the teacher.
Master Class 11 Practical Chemistry with Modern ABC – The Complete Laboratory Companion
The Modern ABC of Practical Chemistry Class 11, authored by S. Kiran Kavya and published by Modern Publishers, is a meticulously crafted laboratory manual designed to bridge the gap between theoretical chemistry concepts and hands-on experimental skills. Aligned with the latest CBSE and other board syllabi, this book serves as an indispensable resource for students aiming to excel in their practical examinations and develop a robust foundation for competitive exams like JEE and NEET.
This volume goes beyond a simple list of experiments; it is a comprehensive guide to the quantitative estimation and qualitative analysis that form the core of Class 11 practical work. The book begins by establishing a strong safety and procedural foundation with a dedicated section on First Aid in the Laboratory and an introduction to "The Chemist and His Tools". Students will master basic laboratory techniques through step-by-step instructions on cutting glass tubes, bending them, drawing jets, and boring corks—essential psychomotor skills for any budding chemist.
A significant portion of the book is dedicated to the characterisation and purification of chemical substances. Learners will gain hands-on experience in determining the melting point and boiling point of organic compounds and performing crystallisation to purify impure samples of copper sulphate (blue vitriol), potash alum, and benzoic acid. These experiments teach the principle of obtaining pure compounds from crude mixtures.
The manual provides exhaustive coverage of experiments based on pH, a critical topic in physical chemistry. From determining the pH of fruit juices and vegetable juices using pH paper and universal indicator to comparing the pH of strong versus weak acids, students will explore the entire spectrum of acidity and alkalinity. Key experiments include studying the pH change in titration (e.g., 0.1 M HCl with 0.1 M NaOH) and the common ion effect by observing pH changes in acetic acid upon adding sodium acetate or in ammonium hydroxide upon adding ammonium chloride.
In the unit on chemical equilibrium, students investigate the Le Chatelier principle by studying shifts in equilibrium between ferric and thiocyanate ions and between hexaaquacobalt(II) and chloride ions. The quantitative estimation (volumetric analysis) section is particularly robust, guiding learners through preparing standard solutions (M/10 oxalic acid, M/10 sodium carbonate) and determining the molarity and strength of sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid solutions. A unique inclusion is the volumetric determination of the percentage purity of a given sodium carbonate sample.
The inorganic qualitative analysis section provides a systematic scheme for detecting one anion and one cation in a given salt, covering a wide range of ions including Pb²⁺, Cu²⁺, Fe³⁺, Ni²⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, NH₄⁺, CO₃²⁻, NO₃⁻, Cl⁻, and more. Furthermore, the book covers the detection of nitrogen, sulphur, and chlorine in organic compounds via Lassaigne’s test.
A standout feature is the inclusion of eight investigatory projects that encourage scientific enquiry. Projects include checking bacterial contamination in drinking water by testing sulphide ions, testing water hardness and the presence of iron/fluoride/chloride, studying the foaming capacity of soaps with and without sodium carbonate, analysing the acidity of tea leaves and fruit juices, comparing the rate of evaporation of different liquids, and studying the effect of acids and bases on the tensile strength of fibres like cotton, wool, silk, and nylon.
With detailed appendices, clear diagrams, and viva-voce questions, Modern ABC of Practical Chemistry Class 11 is the definitive guide for scoring top marks and building genuine laboratory competence.
First Aid in Laboratory
1. The Chemist and His Tools
2. Basic Laboratory Techniques
Experiment 2.1: To cut a glass tube and round off its edges.
Experiment 2.2: To bend a glass tube.
Experiment 2.3: To draw a jet from a glass tube and prepare a capillary tube.
Experiment 2.4: To bore a cork and fit a glass tube into it.
3. Determination of Melting Point and Boiling Point
Experiment 3.1: To determine the melting point of the given solid substance.
Experiment 3.2: To determine the boiling point of the given liquid.
4. Characterisation and Purification of Chemical Substances
Experiment 4.1: To prepare crystals of pure copper sulphate (CaSO₄.5H₂O) from a given impure sample of blue vitriol.
Experiment 4.2: To prepare crystals of potash alum (K₂SO₄Al₂(SO)₃, 24H₂O) from a commercial sample.
Experiment 4.3: To purify an impure sample of benzoic acid by the process of crystallisation.
5. Experiments based on pH
Experiment 5.1: Determine the pH value of some vegetable juices and fruit juices using (i) pH paper (ii) universal indicator solution.
Experiment 5.2: Determine the pH values of hydrochloric acid solutions of different concentrations using (i) pH paper (ii) and universal indicator solution.
Experiment 5.3: Determine the pH values of sodium hydroxide solutions of different concentrations using (i) pH paper (ii) and universal indicator solution.
Experiment 5.4: Determine the pH values of given salt solutions using (1) pH paper and (ii) universal indicator solution.
Experiment 5.5: Determine and compare the pH values of hydrochloric acid and acetic acid solutions having the same concentration.
Experiment 5.6: To study the change in pH in the titration of 0.1 M HCl with 0.1 M NaOH solution with the help of universal indicator solution.
Experiment 5.7: To determine the change in pH value of given acetic acid on the addition of sodium acetate solution.
Experiment 5.8: Determine the change in pH value of a given ammonium hydroxide (NH₄OH) solution on addition of ammonium chloride solution.
6. Chemical Equilibrium
Experiment 6.1: To study the shift in equilibrium between ferric ions and thiocyanate ions by increasing/decreasing the concentration of either ion.
Experiment 6.2: To study the shift in equilibrium between Co(H₂O) by changing the concentration of either of the ions. and chloride ions
7. Quantitative Estimation (Volumetric Analysis)
Experiment 7.1: To prepare 250 mL of M/10 solution of oxalic acid from crystalline oxalic acid.
Experiment 7.2: Prepare 250 mL of M/10 sodium carbonate solution.
Experiment 7.3: Determine the molarity and strength of the given sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) solution. You are provided with M/20 oxalic acid solution.
Experiment 7.4: Determine molarity and strength of the given solution of hydrochloric acid. You are provided with an M/20 sodium carbonate solution.
Experiment 7.5: Determine volumetrically the percentage purity of a given sample of sodium carbonate (washing soda), 7.0 g of which are dissolved per litre. Ask for your requirement.
8. Inorganic Qualitative Analysis
9. Detection of Nitrogen, Sulphur, and Chlorine in Organic Compounds
- Investigatory Projects
Project 1: Checking of bacterial contamination in drinking water.
Experiment 1.1: To check the bacterial contamination in drinking water by testing sulphide ions.
Project 2: Study of methods of purification of water.
Project 3: Testing the hardness and presence of iron, fluoride, and chloride in drinking water
Experiment 3.1: To determine the hardness of water in a given water sample.
Experiment 3.2: To test the presence of iron, chloride, fluoride, etc., depending upon the regional variation in drinking water and the study of causes of the presence of these ions above the permissible limit (if any)
Project 4: To Study the Foaming Capacity of Soaps.
Experiment 4.1: Compare the foaming capacities of different samples of soaps.
Experiment 4.2: Study the effect of the addition of sodium carbonate (washing soda) on the foaming capacity of a soap.
Project 5: Study of acidity of different samples of tea leaves.
Experiment 5.1: To study the acidity of different samples of the tea leaves.
Project 6: To study the rate of evaporation of different liquids.
Experiment 6.1: To compare the rates of evaporation of different liquids (say water, ethyl alcohol, acetone and benzene).
Experiment 6.2: To study the effect of temperature on the rate of evaporation of a liquid.
Experiment 6.3: To study the effect of surface area on the rate of evaporation of a liquid.
Experiment 6.4: To study the effect of air current on the rate of evaporation.
Project 7: Study of the effect of acids and bases on the tensile strength of fibres.
Experiment 7.1: To compare the tensile strength of cotton, wool, silk and nylon fibres.
Experiment 7.2: To study the effect of acids and alkalis on the tensile strength of cotton, wool, silk and nylon fibres.
Project 8: Study of acidity of fruit and vegetable juices.
Experiment 8.1: To study the acidity of fruit and vegetable juices.
Does this book cover the preparation of standard solutions for titration?
A1
Yes. It details preparing 250 mL of M/10 oxalic acid and M/10 sodium carbonate solutions for accurate volumetric analysis.
Q2
Are investigatory projects included as per CBSE guidelines?
A2
Yes. It contains eight projects, including water purification, foaming capacity of soaps, and tensile strength of fibres.
Q3
Does it cover the detection of both anions and cations in a salt?
A3
Yes. Systematic qualitative analysis for cations like Pb²⁺, Cu²⁺, Fe³⁺ and anions like CO₃²⁻, NO₃⁻, Cl⁻ is included.
Q4
Are melting and boiling point determinations explained?
A4
Yes. Separate experiments show step-by-step determination of melting point of solids and boiling point of liquids.
Q5
Does it include experiments on chemical equilibrium shift?
A5
Yes. It demonstrates shifts in ferric-thiocyanate equilibrium and cobalt-chloride equilibrium by changing ion concentrations.
Q6
Does the book cover purification of impure benzoic acid?
A6
Yes. Experiment 4.3 details crystallisation to purify an impure sample of benzoic acid.
Q7
How does it teach glassware handling?
A7
Basic techniques include cutting, bending glass tubes, drawing jets, preparing capillary tubes, and boring corks.
Q8
Does it help in determining the purity of washing soda?
A8
Yes. Experiment 7.5 teaches volumetric determination of percentage purity of a given sodium carbonate sample.
Q9
Is the effect of surface area on evaporation covered?
A9
Yes. Project 6 includes an experiment to study the effect of surface area on the rate of evaporation of a liquid.
Q10
Does the book cover organic compound detection for nitrogen?
A10
Yes. Chapter 9 specifically covers detection of nitrogen, sulphur, and chlorine in organic compounds via Lassaigne’s test.
PRACTICAL SYLLABUS
Microchemical methods are available for several of the practical experiments; wherever possible, such techniques should be used:
A. Basic Laboratory Techniques
1. Cutting glass tube and glass rod
2. Bending a glass tube
3. Drawing out a glass jet
4. Boring a cork
B. Characterization and Purification of Chemical Substances
1. Determination of the melting point of an organic compound.
2. Determination of boiling point of an organic compound.
3. Crystallization of an impure sample of any one of the following: alum, copper sulfate, or benzoic acid.
C. Experiments based on pH
1. Any one of the following experiments:
- Determination of pH of some solutions obtained from fruit juices and solutions of known and varied concentrations of acids, bases, and salts using pH paper or universal indicator.
- Comparing the pH of solutions of strong and weak acids of the same concentration.
- Study the pH change in the titration of a strong base using a universal indicator.
2. Study the pH change by common ion in the case of weak acids and weak bases.
D. Chemical Equilibrium
- One of the following experiments:
(a) Study the shift in equilibrium between ferric ions by increasing/decreasing the concentration of either of the ions.
(b) Study the shift in equilibrium between [Co(H₂O)₆]²⁺ and chloride ions by changing the concentration of the ions.
E. Quantitative Estimation
(i) Using a mechanical balance/electronic balance.
(ii) Preparation of standard solution of oxalic acid.
(iii) Determination of the strength of a given solution of sodium hydroxide by titrating it against a standard solution of oxalic acid.
(iv) Preparation of standard solution of sodium carbonate.
(v) Determination of strength of a given solution of hydrochloric acid by titrating it against standard
F. Qualitative Analysis
(a) Determination of one anion and one cation in a given salt
(b) Detection of nitrogen, sulfur, and chlorine in organic compounds.
(c) Projects
Scientific investigations involving laboratory testing and collecting information from other sources.
PROJECTS
A Few Suggested Projects.
- Checking the bacterial contamination in drinking water by testing sulphide ion.
- Study of the methods of purification of water.
- Testing the hardness, presence of iron, fluoride, chloride, etc., depending upon the regional variation in drinking water and study of causes of presence of these ions above the permissible limit (if any).
- Investigation of the foaming capacity of different washing soaps and the effect of the addition of sodium carbonate on it.
- Study the acidity of different samples of tea leaves.
- Determination of the rate of evaporation of different liquids.
- Study the effect of acids and bases on the tensile strength of fibers.
- Study of acidity of fruit and vegetable juices.
Note: Any other investigatory project, which involves about 10 periods of work, can be chosen with the approval of the teacher.
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